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Anthropomorphism is the attribution of uniquely human characteristics and qualities to nonhuman beings, inanimate objects, or natural or supernatural phenomena. Animals, forces of
nature, and unseen or unknown sources of chance are frequent subjects of anthropomorphous. The term is derived from two Greek language words, ἄνθρωπος (
anthrōpos), meaning
human, and μορφή (
morphē), meaning
shape or
form. The suffix '-ism' originates from the morpheme -ισμός or -ισμα in the Greek language.
It is a common and seemingly natural tendency for humans to perceive nonhuman animals or inanimate objects as having human characteristics, one which some suggest provides a window into the way in which humans perceive themselves. Common examples of this tendency include naming cars or begging machines to work.
It is also probably true that humans have a natural tendency to deny common traits with other species, most particularly apes, feeling that humans are unique and "special." This tendency may be described as anthropomorphophobia and has been referred to as
Anthropodenial by primatologist
Frans de Waal, author of
Our Inner Ape and other books and articles.
In religions and mythologies
In
religion and
mythology, anthropomorphism refers to the perception of a divine being or beings in human form, or the recognition of human qualities in these beings. Many mythologies are almost entirely concerned with anthropomorphic
deity who express human characteristics such as
jealousy, hatred, or love. The
family tree of the Greek gods, such as
Zeus and
Apollo (god), were often depicted in human form exhibiting both commendable and despicable human traits. Anthropomorphism in this case is sometimes referred to as
Anthropotheism.
In Biblical literalism
Numerous
sects throughout history have been called
anthropomorphites, including a sect in
Egypt in the 4th century, and a group in the Roman Catholic Church in the
10th century, who literally interpreted
Genesis chapter 1, verse 27: "So God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them."
In Hinduism
The ten avatars of the Hindu supreme god Vishnu possess both human and divine forms and qualities, although their degrees of divinity vary. In
Vaishnavism, a Monotheism faith, Vishnu is
omniscience and
benevolence, in contrast to gods of the Ancient Greek Religion and
Roman religion religions. See
God#Conceptions of God in Hinduism.
Opposition to anthropomorphism
Many religions and philosophies have condemned anthropomorphism for various reasons. Some Greek philosophy did not approve of, and were often hostile to their people's mythology. These philosophers often developed monotheistic views.
Plato's (427–347
Common Era)
Demiurge (craftsman) in the
Timaeus (dialogue) and
Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
Cosmological argument in his
Physics (Aristotle) are notable examples. The Greek philosopher
Xenophanes (570–480 BCE) said that "the greatest god" resembles man "neither in form nor in mind." (Clement of Alexandria,
Miscellanies V xiv 109.1-3). The similarity of these philosophers' concepts of god to the concepts found in the Bible facilitated the incorporation of much pre-Christian Greek philosophy into the Middle Ages Christian world view by the
Scholasticism, most notably Thomas Aquinas. Anthropomorphism of God is condemned by
Islam, since Muslims feel that God is beyond human limits of physical comprehension. This conception is also championed by the doctrinal view of Nirguna Brahman.
From the perspective of adherents of religions in which the deity or deities have human characteristics, it may be more accurate to describe the phenomenon as theomorphism, or the giving of divine qualities to humans, rather than anthropomorphism, the giving of human qualities to the divine. According to their beliefs, the deity or deities usually existed before humans, therefore humans were created in the form of the divine. However, for those who do not believe in the doctrine of the religion, the phenomenon can be considered anthropomorphism. In fact, Stewart Elliott Guthrie, in his book
Faces in the Clouds: A New Theory of Religion (1993), theorizes that all religions are simply anthropomorphisms that originate in the human brain's tendency to over-detect the presence or vestiges of other humans in the natural world.
Interestingly, Charles Lutwidge Dodgson novel Alice's Adventures in Wonderland was list of banned books in Hunan because "animals should not use human language" and it "put animals and human beings on the same level."
In literature
Anthropomorphism is a well-established device in literature. Aesop's Fables, a collection of short tales written or recorded by the ancient Greek citizen
Aesop, make extensive use of anthropomorphism, in which animals and
weather illustrate simple moral lessons. The Indian books
Panchatantra (The Five priniciples) and
The Jataka tales employ anthropomorphized animals to illustrate various principles of life.
Anthropomorphism is commonly employed in books for children, such as those by
Lewis Carroll,
Roald Dahl, Brian Jacques,
C.S. Lewis, and Beatrix Potter.
W.V. Awdry The Railway Series depicts steam locomotives and diesel locomotives with human-like faces and personalities, which lead to the popular television series
Thomas the Tank Engine. A particularly famous example from Edwardian England, with an enduring appeal, is The Wind in the Willows by
Kenneth Graham, with the characters of Rat, Mole, Badger, Toad and the Weasels.
However, anthropomorphism is not exclusively used as a device in children's literature: Terry Pratchett is notable for having several anthropomorphic characters in his
Discworld series, the best-known of which is the character
Death (Discworld). Piers Anthony also wrote a series regarding the seven
Incarnations of Immortality, which are Death, Time, Fate, War, Nature, Evil, and Good.
Neil Gaiman is notable for anthropomorphising seven aspects of the world in his series
The Sandman (DC Comics/Vertigo), named
The Endless (comics):
Destiny (DC Comics),
Death (DC Comics), Dream (DC Comics),
Destruction (DC Comics), Desire (DC Comics), Despair (DC Comics), and
Delirium (DC Comics). Perhaps most famously,
George Orwell converted several key actors in the
Russian Revolution into anthropomorphic animals in his satire
Animal Farm. Garry Kilworth's Welkin Weasels series reverses the idea of carnivores as villains in children's literature. In Art Spiegelman's
Maus, a graphic novel about
The Holocaust, different races are portrayed as different animals - the Jews as mice, Germans as cats and Poles as pigs, for example.
In technical fields
, an anthropomorphic robot created by Honda
Hackers and programmers are known to anthropomorphize technology, mostly as a time-saving metaphorical device. Complex technology, specifically
computers, can exhibit complicated behaviors that can be lengthy to describe in purely inanimate terms. (Note that describing computer systems as having behaviors may itself be considered a kind of anthropomorphism). Therefore, hackers may use human actions and emotions to describe the behavior of a computer system. For example, if a program encounters minor errors but can still accomplish its task, it may do so but send the user an error message. Especially in instances where the error encountered is considered trivial, a hacker might describe the computer as "complaining." This human action (complaining) conveys that there is a difficulty, while acknowledging the trivial nature of the difficulty, and perhaps the fact that the program did what was required despite the difficulty.
Anthropomorphism particularly effects the field of robotics, especially in instances of
robots that are given human forms.
See the section on
anthropomorphism in the
Jargon File for more information, including the self-referentially hackish joke on the topic "Don't anthropomorphize computers: they hate that".
This form of anthropomorphism is also common in other technical fields. For example, a
chemist might casually explain a
covalent bond between carbon and
hydrogen by asserting that the carbon atom "shares" electrons with the hydrogen atom, although the chemist knows that atoms are incapable of the human connotative meaning of sharing. A similar example in biology is the selfish gene theory.
Similarly, in finance, a financial market that rises and falls might be described as "fickle." However, because it is a process made possible by humans, and directly effected by human actions (particularly reactions to market forces), the market is theoretically capable of reflecting human emotions. If the criterion for anthropomorphism is that the subject is ascribed human attributes it does not have, financial markets and other demographic forces may not qualify. However, they might be considered true personifications of human emotion, and qualify much like the personification of desire.
In artificial intelligence
The study and development of artificial intelligence identifies the tendency to see human characteristics in inanimate objects as potentially more significant, especially as
computers begin to reach the point at which they can recognize spoken language. Some computers display very specific and specialized categories of simulated human behaviour, such as learning from mistakes, anticipating input, playing chess and other games which require human-like intelligence.
In rhetoric and logical reasoning
Anthropomorphism in the form of
personification consists of creating imaginary persons who are the embodiment of an abstract concept such as lust,
war, or
Death (personification). This is common in many mythologies, of which the best known are Greek mythology and
Roman mythology, and fantasy fiction.
See
Four Horsemen of the ApocalypseIn classical
rhetoric, personification is a
figure of speech, or more specifically, a Trope (literature), that employs the deliberate use of anthropomorphism, usually in attempt to make an emotional appeal. In rhetorical theory, a distinction is often drawn between personification (anthropomorphism of inanimate, but real, objects) and figures such as
Apostrophe (figure of speech), in which an absent people or abstract concepts are addressed.
An example of rhetorical personification:An example of rhetorical apostrophe:Using anthropomorphized
caricatures or projecting human qualities on conceptual entities or inanimate objects in reasoning is also known as committing a pathetic fallacy (in logical reasoning, this is not a pejorative term).
See also
References
Anthropomorphite.
Shipley, Orby. ed. A glossary of ecclesiastical terms. 1872.
External links
- Anthropomorphism at The Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy, and Spaceflight
Anthropomorphism is the attribution of uniquely
human characteristics and qualities to nonhuman beings, inanimate objects, or natural or supernatural phenomena.
Animals, forces of
nature, and unseen or unknown sources of chance are frequent subjects of anthropomorphous. The term is derived from two Greek language words, ἄνθρωπος (
anthrōpos), meaning
human, and μορφή (
morphē), meaning
shape or
form. The suffix '-ism' originates from the morpheme -ισμός or -ισμα in the Greek language.
It is a common and seemingly natural tendency for humans to perceive nonhuman animals or inanimate objects as having human characteristics, one which some suggest provides a window into the way in which humans perceive themselves. Common examples of this tendency include naming cars or begging machines to work.
It is also probably true that humans have a natural tendency to deny common traits with other species, most particularly apes, feeling that humans are unique and "special." This tendency may be described as anthropomorphophobia and has been referred to as
Anthropodenial by primatologist Frans de Waal, author of
Our Inner Ape and other books and articles.
In religions and mythologies
In
religion and
mythology, anthropomorphism refers to the perception of a divine being or beings in human form, or the recognition of human qualities in these beings. Many mythologies are almost entirely concerned with anthropomorphic
deity who express human characteristics such as jealousy, hatred, or love. The family tree of the Greek gods, such as Zeus and
Apollo (god), were often depicted in human form exhibiting both commendable and despicable human traits. Anthropomorphism in this case is sometimes referred to as Anthropotheism.
In Biblical literalism
Numerous
sects throughout history have been called
anthropomorphites, including a sect in Egypt in the 4th century, and a group in the Roman Catholic Church in the 10th century, who literally interpreted
Genesis chapter 1, verse 27: "So God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them."
In Hinduism
The ten avatars of the
Hindu supreme god Vishnu possess both human and divine forms and qualities, although their degrees of divinity vary. In
Vaishnavism, a
Monotheism faith, Vishnu is
omniscience and benevolence, in contrast to gods of the Ancient Greek Religion and
Roman religion religions. See God#Conceptions of God in Hinduism.
Opposition to anthropomorphism
Many religions and philosophies have condemned anthropomorphism for various reasons. Some
Greek philosophy did not approve of, and were often hostile to their people's mythology. These philosophers often developed monotheistic views.
Plato's (427–347 Common Era)
Demiurge (craftsman) in the
Timaeus (dialogue) and Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
Cosmological argument in his
Physics (Aristotle) are notable examples. The Greek philosopher Xenophanes (570–480 BCE) said that "the greatest god" resembles man "neither in form nor in mind." (
Clement of Alexandria,
Miscellanies V xiv 109.1-3). The similarity of these philosophers' concepts of god to the concepts found in the Bible facilitated the incorporation of much pre-Christian Greek philosophy into the
Middle Ages Christian world view by the
Scholasticism, most notably Thomas Aquinas. Anthropomorphism of God is condemned by
Islam, since Muslims feel that God is beyond human limits of physical comprehension. This conception is also championed by the doctrinal view of
Nirguna Brahman.
From the perspective of adherents of religions in which the deity or deities have human characteristics, it may be more accurate to describe the phenomenon as
theomorphism, or the giving of divine qualities to humans, rather than anthropomorphism, the giving of human qualities to the divine. According to their beliefs, the deity or deities usually existed before humans, therefore humans were created in the form of the divine. However, for those who do not believe in the doctrine of the religion, the phenomenon can be considered anthropomorphism. In fact, Stewart Elliott Guthrie, in his book
Faces in the Clouds: A New Theory of Religion (1993), theorizes that all religions are simply anthropomorphisms that originate in the human brain's tendency to over-detect the presence or vestiges of other humans in the natural world.
Interestingly,
Charles Lutwidge Dodgson novel Alice's Adventures in Wonderland was list of banned books in
Hunan because "animals should not use human language" and it "put animals and human beings on the same level."
In literature
Anthropomorphism is a well-established device in literature. Aesop's Fables, a collection of short tales written or recorded by the ancient Greek citizen Aesop, make extensive use of anthropomorphism, in which animals and
weather illustrate simple moral lessons. The Indian books
Panchatantra (The Five priniciples) and
The Jataka tales employ anthropomorphized animals to illustrate various principles of life.
Anthropomorphism is commonly employed in books for children, such as those by Lewis Carroll, Roald Dahl, Brian Jacques,
C.S. Lewis, and Beatrix Potter. W.V. Awdry The Railway Series depicts steam locomotives and diesel locomotives with human-like faces and personalities, which lead to the popular television series Thomas the Tank Engine. A particularly famous example from Edwardian England, with an enduring appeal, is The Wind in the Willows by
Kenneth Graham, with the characters of Rat, Mole, Badger, Toad and the Weasels.
However, anthropomorphism is not exclusively used as a device in children's literature:
Terry Pratchett is notable for having several anthropomorphic characters in his
Discworld series, the best-known of which is the character
Death (Discworld). Piers Anthony also wrote a series regarding the seven
Incarnations of Immortality, which are Death, Time, Fate, War, Nature, Evil, and Good.
Neil Gaiman is notable for anthropomorphising seven aspects of the world in his series
The Sandman (DC Comics/Vertigo), named
The Endless (comics): Destiny (DC Comics),
Death (DC Comics),
Dream (DC Comics), Destruction (DC Comics),
Desire (DC Comics), Despair (DC Comics), and Delirium (DC Comics). Perhaps most famously,
George Orwell converted several key actors in the Russian Revolution into anthropomorphic animals in his satire
Animal Farm. Garry Kilworth's Welkin Weasels series reverses the idea of carnivores as villains in children's literature. In
Art Spiegelman's
Maus, a graphic novel about
The Holocaust, different races are portrayed as different animals - the Jews as mice, Germans as cats and Poles as pigs, for example.
In technical fields
, an anthropomorphic robot created by Honda
Hackers and programmers are known to anthropomorphize technology, mostly as a time-saving metaphorical device. Complex technology, specifically
computers, can exhibit complicated behaviors that can be lengthy to describe in purely inanimate terms. (Note that describing computer systems as having behaviors may itself be considered a kind of anthropomorphism). Therefore, hackers may use human actions and emotions to describe the behavior of a computer system. For example, if a program encounters minor errors but can still accomplish its task, it may do so but send the user an error message. Especially in instances where the error encountered is considered trivial, a hacker might describe the computer as "complaining." This human action (complaining) conveys that there is a difficulty, while acknowledging the trivial nature of the difficulty, and perhaps the fact that the program did what was required despite the difficulty.
Anthropomorphism particularly effects the field of robotics, especially in instances of robots that are given human forms.
See the section on
anthropomorphism in the Jargon File for more information, including the self-referentially hackish joke on the topic "Don't anthropomorphize computers: they hate that".
This form of anthropomorphism is also common in other technical fields. For example, a
chemist might casually explain a covalent bond between
carbon and
hydrogen by asserting that the carbon atom "shares" electrons with the hydrogen atom, although the chemist knows that atoms are incapable of the human connotative meaning of sharing. A similar example in biology is the selfish gene theory.
Similarly, in finance, a financial market that rises and falls might be described as "fickle." However, because it is a process made possible by humans, and directly effected by human actions (particularly reactions to market forces), the market is theoretically capable of reflecting human emotions. If the criterion for anthropomorphism is that the subject is ascribed human attributes it does not have, financial markets and other demographic forces may not qualify. However, they might be considered true personifications of human emotion, and qualify much like the personification of desire.
In artificial intelligence
The study and development of artificial intelligence identifies the tendency to see human characteristics in inanimate objects as potentially more significant, especially as
computers begin to reach the point at which they can recognize spoken language. Some computers display very specific and specialized categories of simulated human behaviour, such as learning from mistakes, anticipating input, playing
chess and other games which require human-like intelligence.
In rhetoric and logical reasoning
Anthropomorphism in the form of personification consists of creating imaginary persons who are the embodiment of an abstract concept such as
lust, war, or Death (personification). This is common in many mythologies, of which the best known are
Greek mythology and Roman mythology, and fantasy fiction.
See Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
In classical
rhetoric, personification is a
figure of speech, or more specifically, a
Trope (literature), that employs the deliberate use of anthropomorphism, usually in attempt to make an emotional appeal. In rhetorical theory, a distinction is often drawn between personification (anthropomorphism of inanimate, but real, objects) and figures such as Apostrophe (figure of speech), in which an absent people or abstract concepts are addressed.
An example of rhetorical personification:An example of rhetorical apostrophe:Using anthropomorphized
caricatures or projecting human qualities on conceptual entities or inanimate objects in
reasoning is also known as committing a pathetic fallacy (in logical reasoning, this is not a
pejorative term).
See also
References
Anthropomorphite.
Shipley, Orby. ed. A glossary of ecclesiastical terms. 1872.
External links
- Anthropomorphism at The Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy, and Spaceflight
Anthropomorphism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Anthropomorphism is the attribution of uniquely human characteristics to non-human creatures and beings, natural and supernatural phenomena, material states and objects or abstract ...
Moe anthropomorphism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Moe anthropomorphism (萌え擬人化, moe gijinka?) is a form of anthropomorphism where moe qualities are given to non-human beings, objects, concepts, or phenomena.
Definition: anthropomorphism from Online Medical Dictionary
The Online Medical Dictionary is a searchable dictionary of definitions from medicine, science and technology. ... anthropomorphism. 1. The representation of the Deity, or of a ...
anthropomorphism.org
People attribute human qualities to toys, products, and machines, and they design toys, products, and machines to enhance this process (see anthropomorphic ...
Anthropomorphism - Definitions from Dictionary.com
Audio Help / ˌæn θrə pəˈmɔr fɪz əm / Pronunciation Key - Show Spelled Pronunciation [an ... noun
anthropomorphism - definition of anthropomorphism by the Free Online ...
Attribution of human motivation, characteristics, or behavior to inanimate objects, animals, or natural phenomena.
anthropomorphism definition of anthropomorphism in the Free Online ...
anthropomorphism (ăn'thrəpōmôr`fĭzəm) [Gr.,=having human form], in religion, conception of divinity as being in human form or having human characteristics.
Anthropomorphism
Anthropomorphism: attributing human characteristics to half-human half-animal characters
anthropomorphism - definition of anthropomorphism in the Medical ...
anthropomorphism /an·thro·po·mor·phism/ (an?thro-po-mor´fizm) the attribution of human characteristics to nonhuman objects.
anthropomorphism - Hutchinson encyclopedia article about ...
anthropomorphism. The attribution of human characteristics to animals, inanimate objects, or deities. It appears in the mythologies of many cultures and as a literary device in ...
